Taqwa in the Modern World

 Taqwa in the Modern World

Faiyaz M. Khan

Taqwa is a noun from the root word waqa, it means to protect, to ward off evil, to be dutiful, to abstain, to observe God’s commandments in every aspect of one’s life.[1] Another definition is piety due to God’s reverence.[2] Its root meaning is “to avoid what one dislikes,”[3] “by putting a barrier”[4] to protect oneself. Prophet Muhammad indicated that taqwa resides in the spiritual heart,[5] as a Muslim struggles to obey Allah’s commandments and avoid his prohibitions.[6] The word taqwa appears in the Qur’an fifteen times in eleven surahs,[7] while its root word in its many forms appears “about 258 times.”[8] Its importance is illustrated at the beginning of Surah al-Baqarah[9] which affirms that its guidance is for al-muttaqun – a word derived from the concept of taqwa[10] – meaning those who have acquired it.[11]

As the Qur’an is the final revelation to mankind, it is essential that acquiring taqwa and seeking means to actualising it into the modern context is an endeavour which must be undertaken by Muslims to take full advantage of God’s guidance. Therefore, taqwa is not time bound, as it is the central goal of Islam to help Muslims acquire it. Here different aspects of taqwa are critically evaluated to demonstrate its relevance in modern contexts.

 

Taqwa and Cooperation

In Surah al-Ma’idah it states, “And cooperate in righteousness (al-birr) and piety (taqwa), but do not cooperate in sin (ithm) and aggression (udwan).”[12] This verse begins with “O you who have believed,”[13] which reveals that the information in this verse is crucial and its implementation into the believer’s life is key to perfecting one’s faith and “attaining ultimate felicity.”[14] There is a distinction between al-birr and taqwa:  al-birr is to help each other in obeying Allah; while taqwa is to refrain from sins.[15] On the other hand, ithm is to commit prohibitions,[16] and udwan is crossing Allah’s limits.[17] Moreover, As-Sa’di affirms that al-birr is what Allah loves, and taqwa is refraining for what is hated by Allah and his messenger; whereas ithm is to disobey Allah and udwan is to transgress regarding people’s “blood, wealth and honour.”[18] Furthermore, other scholars interpret al-birr as obeying Allah’s commandments and taqwa as avoiding the prohibitions of Allah;[19] while Al-Qurtubi mentions that the two words are synonymous as “every goodness is taqwa and every taqwa is goodness,”[20]

Madani and Shafi give broad interpretations of ta’awanu to include all types of worldly cooperation including amongst countries, as well as economic and educational progress and helping non-Muslims in mutually beneficial endeavours.[21] This comprehensive perspective encourages Muslims to cooperate with anyone in any permissible field to promote righteousness and piety.[22] All actions need to be permissible in the Shariah for it to be righteous and a means of achieving piety. Shafi argues that no human undertaking whether small or extraordinary can be achieved without the cooperation of others: from having cereal for breakfast to running an international conglomerate.[23] As such, humans have over time organised themselves into tribes, nations and international organisations in order the facilitate this mutual cooperation and benefit.[24] This beneficial cooperation can be for humanitarian aid, disaster relief and development loans for bridges and hospitals on the one hand, to assisting your neighbour to maintain their lawn if he or she is away or ill. Every action that is beneficial to humanity in general falls within the ambit of this verse; as well as the hadith which states, “The best people are those who are most beneficial to mankind.”[25]

Muslim[26] reports a hadith which affirms that every prophet needed the assistance of his companions and supporters to successfully fulfil his mission.[27] The prophets and messengers of God needed the cooperation of their followers to help and support them to convey the divine message, establish believing communities, fight their enemies, build places of worship and implement the sacred law.[28] In the same way, Muslims also need to cooperate and support each other to build communities, mosques, social organisations and schools for Muslims to be able to live as practising believers.[29] Without this help of mutual beneficial cooperation, neither the prophets and messengers of the past, nor the Muslims of today would be able to perform daily rituals and actions that are taken for granted. This would include praying at a mosque, organising the payment of zakat, sending Muslim children to Islamic schools and getting buried in a Muslim cemetery.[30] This means that all those Muslims who cooperated and supported one another so that their fellow Muslims could benefit from the legacies they left behind, embodied the righteous actions and piety commended in the above verse.

An authentic hadith used by the scholars of tafsir[31] to further explain this verse is when the prophet advised his companions to help one another even if the person was oppressed or an oppressor. When he was asked, how they could help an oppressor he replied, “By preventing him from oppressing others.”[32] Shafi asserts that the significance of this hadith is the priority given to safeguard the good deeds and outcome of a person’s afterlife which could be put in jeopardy due to his or her oppression of others.[33] Thus, a Muslim is encouraged to assist fellow Muslims from committing oppression, which Allah has made forbidden for himself and his servant.[34] In addition, it will be “a darkness on the Day of Resurrection,”[35] as it adversely affects a person’s spirituality and relationship with God: for this darkness is a darkness of the heart.[36] Moreover, its importance in this life ensures that no more people are harmed by a Muslim’s oppressive actions, since the larger the number of victims the more likely a person will be punished in the afterlife.

Conversely, cooperating in sin (ithm) and aggression (udwan) earns Allah’s displeasure, leading to misguidance and burdening oneself with more sins. Today, cooperating in sin is easier than ever before, due to internet availability and the widespread adoption of social media, which means that a person can easily begin or promote a sin which develops into a trend which goes viral – allowing others to cooperate in its notoriety by liking, retweeting and forwarding it.[37] An authentic hadith asserts that the person who starts an evil gets the sins of all those who follow him or her in doing that sin, without diminishing the sins of the followers.[38] This means that the one who wishes to attain taqwa cannot forward or retweet something without first assessing its Islamic merits, and the outcomes that will follow such an action. An authentic prophetic tradition warns the believer to always be aware of their actions, as something they consider trifle maybe become a reason for them being punished in the afterlife.[39] This attitude and taqwa-focused framework will perhaps not only stop a person from engaging or participating in what is prohibited, but will also at times hinder one from doing what is permissible – as it could have unintended doubtful or perhaps prohibited consequences.[40] This is done only due to the fear of Allah.[41] Therefore, taqwa is also the fear of Allah which is the “root of justice, righteousness, and all other moral virtues;”[42] as such it is only the fear of Allah and his punishment that will stop most believers from committing sins and acts of aggression – this is from the positive and recommended benefits of fearing Allah.[43]

 

Taqwa and Justice

The next verse to discuss taqwa in Surah al-Ma’idah also begins with “O you who have believed” and focuses on being just.[44] Al-Jazairee explains that it is justice in this universe that keeps everything in its proper place,[45] as one of the names of God is “Al-Adl – The Just.”[46] Two words that emphasise just action in the verse – ta’dilu and i’dilu[47] – refer to being just to one’s family, friends, enemies and also to non-Muslims.[48] As taqwa is connected explicitly to justice in this verse, Al-Jazairee expounds that it is only through taqwa that believers can acquire “Allah’s love and friendship.”[49] This demonstrates the importance of taqwa in a believer’s life; thus, a hadith in Sahih Muslim states that being just in one’s actions towards everyone and in every situation is intrinsically what is the path to attaining taqwa.[50] The hadith reported by Abdullah ibn Umar highlights the reward of those who are fair and just in their everyday dealings, especially in regard to their families – it promises them nearness to the “Most Merciful” and being seated on “thrones of light.”[51] This further emphasises the closeness to the divine in the hereafter achieved by those who have taqwa.

Furthermore, Ibn Kathir mentions an authentic hadith reported by An-Nu’man ibn Bashir to demonstrate how Islam demands justice not only for matters relating to crucial interactions, but also familial relationships regarding gifts given by parents to their children.[52] This illustrates how Islam promotes fairness within a family, indicating the preponderance of justice in human interactions and dealings between close family members and friends to rival businesses, disgruntled neighbours and despised enemies. Thus, Ibn Kathir affirms that being just is “nearer to taqwa,” means in reality it is taqwa.[53] As the Qur’an is a book of guidance and the prophet is the guide to lead people to become closer to Allah, as such there has to be clear instructions on how to attain this closeness – which is to be just.

Oppression is the antithesis of justice, as justice is giving each person their rights and “putting everything in its proper place.”[54] While the attainment of taqwa can be achieved through abstaining from those things which are prohibited and doing every virtuous deed: the “most effective and most feasible means”[55] is through being just in one’s dealings, even though it is extremely difficult to do so.[56] Moreover, Madani explains that a person who has taqwa will also be just as they are complementary attributes; consequently, a sinful oppressor cannot attain taqwa.[57] He further elaborates that a person having taqwa will not fear saying the truth and being a supporter and promoter of justice, even if it is against his or her loved ones and friends.[58] Therefore, taqwa lies in fearing Allah and the desire to please him.[59]

In today’s social media dependent world where people are constantly judging other people, businesses and commodities: it is vital more than ever before to be just, since giving commendable or critical reviews can promote or destroy people’s reputation and livelihoods. Being just covers those who give unfair reviews out of envy and enmity, and those who give unwarranted praise for money or to be seen to support a trend or a well-meaning cause. Therefore, Muslims have to bear in mind their duty to be just, even when they are interacting on social media, as small actions can have devastating consequences. Muslims must at all times be mindful of their actions, especially those that can affect their relationship with Allah.[60]

Shafi stresses the importance of witnesses giving true testimony and ensuring swift justice so as not to oppress witnesses by the constant need to attend court – only for the trial date to be rescheduled a number of times – which has become a feature of modern justice systems.[61] He juxtapositions this dismal situation with the efficiency of the Shariah legal system where cases do not drag on for years and witnesses are treated with respect.[62] Moreover, he emphasises that in today’s context testifying to truth and “standing firm”[63] for justice ranges from a doctor issuing a medical certificate stating someone is unable to attend work, to a teacher marking an assessment and allotting a student a passing or failing grade.[64] He further elaborates that even voting for candidates in local, state and federal elections also is a form of testimony which many people do not take seriously, as a Muslim voter must ensure that they do their due diligence in finding out whether the candidate being voted for is in fact fit to take that office in terms of their qualifications, “honesty and trustworthiness.”[65] He opines that voting for “an undeserving candidate” due to “negligence, apathy and heedlessness” are major sins, since a Muslim’s vote signifies “shahadah (evidence), shafa’ah (recommendation) and wakalah (advocacy)” for the candidate voted for.[66] Realistically, in a social media dominated world where fake news and misinformation is widespread, most voters are unable to differentiate between credible information and blatant lies; therefore, voters cannot be held responsible for their voting choices, especially when they have been deliberately misinformed about candidates, political parties and the real issues in any given election.[67] Political parties and the media also tightly control the amount of information available about any candidate, notwithstanding, the main focus of most elections are on the party leaders and not really on local candidates.[68]

Hence, the duty to always seek to do justice in all interactions and relationships is an enormous challenge for the believer.[69] A believer must hold themselves to account for the justices and injustices one has committed, for this is required for those who fear Allah and wish to please him.[70]

 

Taqwa and Sacrifice

In response to Meccan pagan beliefs of offering some of the blood and meat of sacrificial animals to their gods,[71] Allah in Surah al-Hajj[72] makes it clear that it is only the taqwa of the believers which reaches him (yanala) not the meat (luhum) nor the blood (dima’),[73] as Allah is self-subsisting and self-sufficient.[74] Therefore, the aim of the sacrifice is to demonstrate sincerity and taqwa to Allah[75] – fearing him and seeking his reward.[76] It is also a demonstration of a believer’s faith in God’s oneness (tawhid) and the believer’s dutiful relationship with his or her creator.[77] Furthermore, hajj is a very special type of worship that provides many spiritual and material benefits to the believers, that are not found in any other form of worship:[78] the sacrificing of animals being one such significant example.[79]

Furthermore, the verse also reveals that Allah has subjugated (sakhkhara) the sacrificial animals for the believers, so that they may glorify him (tukabbiru) for guiding them (hadaakum):[80] highlighting the fact that no-one can be guided or do any good without Allah’s guidance and assistance. [81] Moreover, Allah subdued for mankind larger and stronger animals like camels and cattle, which could easily overpower man were it not for Allah’s facilitation and power.[82] The verse ends with the giving of glad tidings (bashshir) to the righteous (muhsinin),[83] clearly referring to those who have taqwa – those who are mindful of Allah, and do good towards his servants.[84]

This verse specifically relates to the rituals of the hajj, which includes animal sacrifice,[85] the meat of which is distributed to the poor and needy.[86] The animal sacrifice remains a tradition of thanksgiving in Islam for the “ransom of Ismail,”[87] who is an exemplar of self-sacrifice and complete submission to God’s will.[88] Therefore, as “a messenger and a prophet,”[89] he is a practical role model for acquiring taqwa. The Qur’an affirms that “he was patient,[90] kept his promises,[91] enjoined salah and zakat,[92] that Allah was pleased with him,[93] that he was among the best,[94] and was “preferred over the worlds.”[95] This is because he was willing to sacrifice his life in obedience to Allah’s command.

Animal sacrifice is an important act of worship that Allah mentions with salah,[96] both of which are the best and most honourable actions,[97] as they are pleasing to Allah and are acts of submission to him.[98] Furthermore, animal sacrifices are great affirmations of God’s oneness,[99] as well as an act of gratitude[100] and repentance to God.[101] In an era when animal sacrifices are bought online and distributed to needy Muslims living in developing countries, this system allows the payer never to see the animal, nor eat its meat nor shed its blood. Moreover, the payer will also never meet the beneficiaries of his sacrifice nor partake in their celebrations: all the payer has is his or her sincere intention and the legitimate (halal) income used to pay for the sacrifice to seek the pleasure of the Almighty.[102] This system has to be based on the fear of Allah,[103] as charity organisations tasked with carrying out this religious duty have to ensure that the money paid is spent responsibly, sacrifices are done Islamically, the meat is distributed to those genuinely in need, and that the sacrifices are done within the days of ‘Id.[104] Without the element of taqwa the system would fail, as the payer and those working for charitable organisations need to fear Allah[105] – knowing that he will hold them accountable in the afterlife – in order to successfully carry out their obligations.[106] Thus, it is only through the idea and practice of taqwa will Muslims retain their spirituality in an age of mass electronic dependence and emerging artificial intelligence technologies.[107]

The sacrifice is rich with symbolism,[108] as it signifies that no physical aspect of worship reaches God[109] – only the believer’s sincerity towards him, love for him and fear of his punishment.[110] In a hadith qudsi Allah affirms that even if all of humankind and every jinn was righteous as the most righteous person, it would not affect him in the least.[111] Thus, while the “taqwa of the hearts”[112] of the believers does reach Allah, it does not increase his dominion: as it is the purpose of humans and jinns to worship their creator wholeheartedly and with full submission.[113] Taqwa is for the believers,[114] so they may attain closeness to Allah through obedience to him, as well as receiving many bounties and rewards from him, whilst abstaining from his disobedience.[115]

In another authentic prophetic tradition, the prophet emphasised that God does not look at a person’s outward appearance, but looks at the heart,[116] asserting the divine prerogative to judge a person’s spiritual status over their material condition.[117] The zeitgeist of materialism and secularism dominates every sphere of daily life, challenging and pushing the religious and spiritual sphere to the fringes of society.[118] The struggle for Muslims is to hold on to their spirituality while observing the physical and material rituals of Islam.[119] This means that for Muslims to truly practice their faith, they must prioritise their spirituality while performing material and physical worship;[120] thus, they must sacrifice an animal at the end of hajj, but with the right intention and making sure it is according to the sunnah – which is paramount.[121] 

Therefore, animal sacrifice, charity and all other actions pleasing to Allah are interconnected with taqwa, as these acts of worship are a means to gain closeness to Allah. Every believer must view their actions as impactful steps towards attaining nearness to the divine, while recognising that their good deeds alone will not get them into paradise: as it is through God’s infinite mercy that anyone will enter paradise.[122]

 

 

 

Taqwa and Moral Character

A person’s taqwa and their character are intrinsically connected,[123] this is demonstrated in a verse in Surah al-Fath[124] that was revealed during the negotiations of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah,[125] which Allah[126] called “a manifest victory.”[127] This significant historical event was a ponderous test for the believers,[128] as the terms of the treaty were unfavourable for the Muslims[129] and disrespectful towards the prophet:[130] which greatly upset some of the companions.[131] Nevertheless, the believers were compelled (alzama)[132] by Allah to accept the treaty and to abide by its conditions;[133] for taqwa demands a person to suppress their own desires and opinions, and to submit to Allah’s commands wholeheartedly as that is honourable conduct.[134] 

The word hamiyyah has several meanings including “heat of rage,”[135] “chauvinism,”[136] “indignation,”[137] “prejudice,”[138] “pride and haughtiness,”[139] “bigotry”[140] and “zealotry.”[141] Moreover, Madani clarifies that it includes anything that a person needs to protect himself or herself from due to its defectiveness or its shamefulness.[142] Allah uses it in this verse to explain why the Meccans behaved in such an atrocious manner to the Muslims’ request to perform umrah.[143] This was because the Quraish feared losing face, so they demanded that the Muslims come the following year to perform umrah, as well as stipulating terms more favourable to themselves. Despite this, the Muslims remained patient, trusting in Allah and his messenger, and conducting themselves towards the disbelievers in a dignified manner. As a result, Allah sent down on the Muslims tranquillity (sakinah) and obligated them adhere to the “word of taqwa:”[144] for it is because of taqwa that the prophet’s companions were disciplined and obedient to Allah and his messenger.[145]

The “word of taqwa” according to some scholars refers to the Islamic testimony of faith, “there is no god but Allah” (la ilaha illa Allah),[146] while others opined it was “sincerity” and recognition of Allah’s oneness and exalting him.[147] Demonstrating the companions’ fidelity, righteousness and complete submission to Islam,[148] making them entitled to and most fitting for such a high distinction in the eyes of God. The “word of taqwa” brought the believers honour in this world, as they were the true companions of the prophet: the ones without hypocrisy, the ones who strove to surrender to the testimony of faith and those who upheld their oaths of allegiance to Allah and his prophet.[149] Hence, the conduct of the companions has become a benchmark for all Muslims to abide by for all time.[150]

Moreover, the connection between taqwa and moral conduct was highlighted by the prophet in authentic narrations where he stated that, “noble character is taqwa,”[151] since most of those who would enter paradise would be people who have, “taqwa of Allah and good character.”[152] Furthermore, the weightiest thing on the scale of good deeds on the day of judgment will be a person’s good character.[153] Thus, the conduct of the companions were more deserving (ahaqq) and worthy (ahlaha)  of “the word taqwa”[154] as they did not behave inappropriately when the Meccan negotiator was disrespectful to the prophet, nor did they protest and sabotage the treaty when it was clearly prejudiced against the Muslims.[155] The companions instead put their trust in Allah, and submitted to the prophet’s decision – having faith that their hurt feelings were due to the fact that they lacked knowledge and understanding of what truly mattered.[156]

In an era of Islamophobia, fake news and anonymity on social media,[157] a Muslim may feel like he or she must constantly be defending Islam from Islamophobes, the media and trolls on social media:[158] which may lead a Muslim to react emotionally in un-Islamic ways. Some Muslims write posts and create videos to refute haters, which further fuels the controversy, leading to more hate, more misinformation and more unscrupulous behaviour.[159] Ironically, instead of resolving the issue it spirals out of control by becoming viral, resulting in Muslims displaying hamiyyah, while the messenger of God cautioned that behaving in an insulting and imprudent manner while arguing is a characteristic of a hypocrite.[160] The prophet advised that Allah’s anger is on a person who uses foul and indecent language,[161] which is prohibited in Islam, making such behaviour unbecoming of a believer who wishes to strive for taqwa and please Allah. Therefore, following the prophet’s example is the best etiquette for a Muslim, as the prophet emphasised that he was sent to “perfect good character.”[162]

Furthermore, this has also been illustrated in the recent past in relation to the cartoons depicting the prophet, and the Muslim reactions to it. Since 2006 hundreds of people, predominantly Muslims, have died in protests due to the cartoons,[163] as well as in other hate speech incidents against Islam and its prophet.[164] Such violence and anger – even in defence of the prophet – would never be sanctioned by him as he declared that the life of the believer was more sacred than the Kab’ah.[165] Moreover, when the prophet was insulted verbally by a group of Jews, he responded to them in an elegant manner, while his wife reacted angrily, to which the prophet advised her, “Be calm, O Aisha! … be kind and lenient in all matters.”[166] The prophet exemplified his saying that, “The best among you are those who have the best manners and the best character.”[167] Thus, violent protests and anger by Muslims in response to Islamophobia and hate speech is incompatible with the morals and ethics of Islam – unworthy and undeserving of the “word of taqwa.”[168]

 

Taqwa and Forgiveness

Inevitably no matter how hard one tries, one will fall into sin, as this is part of the human condition,[169] as Allah says, “mankind was created weak”[170] and “mankind is in loss.”[171] Thus, a verse in Surah al-Muddaththir[172] says that Allah is the only one deserving of taqwa (ahlu at-taqwa)[173] from his servants,[174] granting forgiveness of sins (ahlu al-magfirah)[175] to those who have taqwa, as they are the most eligible of receiving his forgiveness.[176] This does not preclude forgiveness of all other sinners, as ahlu al-magfirah means, “He alone is the Being Who forgives the sins of even the greatest sinners whenever He so wishes.”[177] An example that best illustrates this is the parable of the man who killed ninety-nine people, as Allah forgave him for he had embarked on the journey of repentance and redemption,[178] symbolising a believer’s journey to attain closeness to the divine. His decision to leave everything behind him and set off towards righteousness earned him Allah’s forgiveness as he was deserving of his forgiveness.[179]

The two phrases ahlu at-taqwa and ahlu al-magfirah have different meanings which include “most worthy of reverence and most worthy of granting forgiveness,”[180] “the Lord to be feared, the Lord of forgiveness,”[181] “He Who should be feared and Who forgives,”[182] “He is most worthy of being feared and most worthy of granting forgiveness,”[183] “worthy of being heeded … master of forgiveness,”[184] “Fount of all God-consciousness and the Fount of all forgiveness,”[185] “He is the fount of fear, He is the fount of mercy,”[186] and “the Lord of righteousness and the Lord of forgiveness.”[187] Shafi also explains that ahlu at-taqwa also means, “He alone is worthy to be feared and entitled to be obeyed.”[188] All these meanings place emphasis on forgiveness for the second phrase, while the first phrase has more scope and depth as it refers to taqwa, the meanings and applications of which changes depending on the context.[189]

Every major religion has a moral code by which its adherents live by, in order for the code to be practical and viable, it must have a mechanism whereby people are able to make amends if they breach that code. In Islam, that mechanism is repentance and forgiveness:[190] once a believer makes a mistake, he or she must repent and ask God for forgiveness or the person they have wronged.[191] The prophet affirmed that even if a person were to commit so many sins that his sins were to reach the heavens, and then he was to ask for forgiveness, God would forgive him.[192] In another hadith, he asserted that every person sins, but the best of those who keep sinning are those who constantly repent.[193] By asking for forgiveness, a person acknowledges their sins and if the person does so sincerely, the sin will be erased.[194] Moreover, a person is encouraged to forgive those who have wronged him or her, as the prophet maintained that God would only show mercy to those who show mercy to others.[195] This resets the believer’s relationship with God, allowing him or her to get back to the straight path and to keep working towards taqwa,[196] as Allah delights in the repentance of his servant.[197]

Ibn Majah reported a hadith qudsi with a weak isnad[198] on the authority of Anas ibn Malik, who narrated that the prophet recited the last verse of Surah al-Muddaththir then said that Allah says that only he deserves to be feared, so do not associate partners with him, and whoso fears him is worthy of his forgiveness.[199] This demonstrates the link between tawhid and God’s forgiveness, for acknowledging tawhid is integral to attaining taqwa.[200] Therefore, when a person commits a sin, they must submit to the fact that only Allah can forgive sins and set them aright – “No one else has the power to do this.”[201]

Furthermore, the prophet reveals in another hadith qudsi, what transpires when a servant sincerely repents to God seeking his forgiveness, Allah says, “My servant knows that he has a lord who forgives and punishes, therefore I have forgiven him.”[202] This occurs every time a servant sins and asks for forgiveness, as long as the servant does not wilfully keep sinning and keeps asking for forgiveness insincerely.[203] Moreover, forgiveness is so central to Muslim belief and practice that five names of Allah are in reference to it: “Al-Ghaffar (He who is full of forgiveness),”[204] “Al-Ghafur (the All-Forgiving),”[205] “Al-Tawwab (the Ever-Relenting),”[206] “Al-Afu (the Effacer of Sins),”[207] and “Al-Ra’uf (the All-Pitying).”[208] Each of these names highlight an important aspect of forgiveness. Al-Ghaffar is the fact that Allah displays the beauty of obedience, conceals the ugliness of sins and constantly forgives sins.[209] Al-Ghafur indicates that Allah keeps forgiving repeatedly and accepts the repentance of all those who turn to him.[210] Al-Tawwab means that Allah facilitates the causes of his servants’ repentance and their total submission to him.[211] Al-Afu specifies Allah’s removal of sins and overlooking transgressions.[212] Al-Ra’uf signifies that Allah is full of compassion when forgiving his servants.[213] Thus, Allah demonstrates through his names and attributes his awesome nature and his love and care for his creation, and that he facilitates in every way his servants attainment of taqwa – if he or she is sincere, fearful and submissive to him.

 

Conclusion

The concept of taqwa is at the heart of Islam, as acquiring nearness to the divine is the purpose of every act of obedience, and the opposite is true for every sin and transgression. The discussion of taqwa in relation to five major Qur’anic themes of cooperation, justice, sacrifice, moral character, and forgiveness – highlights the scope and depth of the topic together with its relevance to the modern milieu. The need to contextualise taqwa into contemporary times is a challenge for every generation to overcome if they truly desire closeness to the divine. Without taqwa, every good deed is in vain and every sin a step closer to spiritual desolation and moral apathy. Taqwa must be the goal of a believer’s spiritual revival and his or her motivation for submission to the divine. 

 

 

 

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---

[1] Abu Maryam Majdi Fathi Al-Syed, Taqwa: The Provision of the Believers, trans. Mohammed Amin Kholwadia (London: Al-Firdous Ltd, n.d.), 2; Abdul Mannan Omar, Dictionary of the Holy Qur’an, 2nd ed. (Delaware: Noor Foundation International, 2005), 619.

 

[2] Cyril Glasse, The New Encyclopedia of Islam (Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press, 1989), 451.

 

[3] Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 2nd ed. (Riyadh: Maktaba Darussalam, 2003), 1:109.

 

[4] Muhammad ibn Ahmad Al-Qurtubi, Tafsir al-Qurtubi: The General Judgements of the Quran and the Clarification of What it Contains of the Sunnah and Ayahs of Discrimination, trans. Aisha Bewley (Bradford: Diwan Press, 2020), 1:137.

 

[5] Abu Eisa Mohammad ibn Eisa At-Tirmidhi, English Translation of Jami At-Tirmidhi, trans. Abu Khaliyl (Riyadh: Maktaba Darussalam, 2007), 4: 42, no. 1927; Muhammad ibn Isa Tirmidhi, The Translation of the Meaning of Jami Tirmidhi, trans. Fazal Ahmad and Rafique Abdur Rehman (Karachi: Darul Ishaat, 2007), 1:790, no. 1934.

 

[6] Islam Question & Answer, “Does Tabarruj Invalidate the Fast?” last modified September 21, 2007,  https://islamqa.info/en/answers/50063/does-tabarruj-invalidate-the-fast

 

[7] Muhammad Saeed Lahaam, Al-Mu'jam Al-Mufahras (Beirut: Dar al-Marefah, 2012), 379; Syed Muhammad Osama, The Encyclopaedic Index of the Quran (New Delhi: Goodword Books, 2003), 597-598.

 

[8] Omar, Dictionary of the Holy Qur’an, 619.

 

[9] Qur’an, 2:2.

 

[10] Seyyed Hossein Nasr, ed., The Study Quran: A New Translation and Commentary (New York: HarperOne, 2015), 14-15.

 

[11] Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din Al-Hilali and Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Interpretation of the Meanings of the Noble Qur’an in the English Language (Riyadh: Maktaba Darussalam, 1996), 15.

[12] Qur’an, 5:2. Sahih International’s translation of the Qur’an has been used for this paper.

 

[13] Ibid.

 

[14] Jabir Al-Jazairee, Calls from the Most Merciful, trans. Zahra Baintner (Karachi: Darul Ishaat, 2003), 21.

 

[15] Abdullah ibn Abbas, Tafsir Ibn Abbas, trans. Mokrane Guezzou, (Amman: Royal Aal al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought, 2008): 133; Sahl ibn Abd Allah Al-Tustari, Tafsir al-Tustari, trans. Annabel Keeler and Ali Keeler (Amman: Royal Aal al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought, 2011), 60; Ismail ibn Umar ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 2nd ed. (Riyadh: Maktaba Darussalam, 2003), 3:81.

 

[16] Ibn Abbas, Tafsir Ibn Abbas, 133; Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 3:81.

 

[17] Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 3: 81.

 

[18] Abdur-Rahman Nasir as-Sa’di, Tafseer as-Sa’di, trans. Nasiruddin al-Khattab, ed. Huda Khattab (Riyadh: International Islamic Publishing House, 2018), 2:352-253.

 

[19] Jalal Al-Din Al-Mahalli and Jalal Al-Din As-Suyuti, Tafsir Al-Jalalayn, trans. Aisha Bewley, ed. Abdulhaqq Bewley and Muhammad Isa Waley (London: Dar Al Taqwa, 2007), 235; Abu Hatim Al-Razi, Tafsir Al-Qur’an Al-Azeem (Riyadh: Dar Ibn Al-Jawzi, 2017), 5:33.

 

[20] Muhammad ibn Ahmad Al-Qurtubi, Tafsir al-Qurtubi: The General Judgements of the Quran and the Clarification of What it Contains of the Sunnah and Ayahs of Discrimination, trans. Aisha Bewley (Bradford: Diwan Press, 2020), 6:17.

 

[21] Muhammad Aashiq Elahi Muhajir Madani, Tafsir Anwarul Bayan: Illuminating Discourses on the Noble Quran, trans. Afzal Hussain Elias, 2nd ed. (Karachi: Darul Ishaat, 2007), 2: 46-47; Muhammad Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an: A Comprehensive Commentary on the Holy Quran, ed. Muhammad Taqi Usmani, 4th ed. (Karachi: Maktaba-e-Darul-Uloom, 2007), 3: 31-39.

 

[22] Salahuddin Yusuf, An English Translation of Tafsir Ahsanul-Bayan, trans. Mohammad Kamal Myshkat (Riyadh: Maktaba Darussalam, 2010), 1: 568.

 

[23] Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an, 3: 31-35.

 

[24] Ibid.

 

[25] At-Tabarani and Ad-Daraqutni, in The Best in Islam, Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips (Sharjah: Dar Al Fatah, 1996), 68, no. 113; At-Tabarani, in “Hadith on Virtues: Most beloved to Allah Benefit People,” Abu Amina Elias, Daily Hadith Online, accessed December 25, 2022, https://www.abuaminaelias.com/dailyhadithonline/2013/01/22/most-beloved-to-allah-beneficial-people/; Daraqutni, in “The Best of the Best,” Abu Eesa Niamatullah, Sunnah Online, accessed December 25, 2022, https://sunnahonline.com/library/purification-of-the-soul/194-best-of-the-best-the

 

[26] Muslim ibn Al-Hajjaj, English Translation of Sahih Muslim, trans. Nasiruddin Al-Khattab, ed. Huda Khattab (Riyadh: Maktaba Darussalam, 2007), 1:144-145, no. 179.

 

[27] Yahya ibn Sharaf Al-Nawawi, Sahih Muslim: With the Full Commentary by Imam Al-Nawawi, trans. Adil Salahi (Leicestershire: The Islamic Foundation, 2021), 2:13-14, no. 83-80.

 

[28] Islam Question & Answer, “Ruling on Cooperation Among Muslims, and Different Aspects of That, and How to Achieve That,” last modified June 14, 2007, https://islamqa.info/en/answers/98668/ruling-on-cooperation-among-muslims-and-different-aspects-of-that-and-how-to-achieve-that

 

[29] Ibid.

 

[30] Ibid.

 

[31] Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 3: 81-82; Muhammad Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an: A Comprehensive Commentary on the Holy Quran, ed. Muhammad Taqi Usmani. 4th ed. (Karachi: Maktaba-e-Darul-Uloom, 2007), 3:36-37.

 

[32] Muhammad ibn Ismail Al-Bukhari, The Translation of Sahih Al-Bukhari, trans. Muhammad Muhsin Khan (Riyadh: Maktaba Darussalam, 1997), 3:361-362, nos. 2443 & 2444.

 

[33] Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an, 3:36-39.

 

[34] Muslim, Sahih Muslim, 6:444-445, no. 6572.

 

[35] Fuwad Abdul Baqi, Al-Lu’Lu’wal-Marjan: A Collection of Agreed Upon Ahadith from Al-Bukahri and Muslim, trans. Muhammad Muhsin Khan (Riyadh: Maktaba Darussalam, 1995), 2:351, no. 1666; Al-Bukhari, Sahih Al-Bukhari, 3:364, no. 2447; Muslim, Sahih Muslim, 6:446, nos. 6576 & 6577.

 

[36] Sayed Abdul Jalil, Nikaatud Duraari: A Commentary of Tajreedul Bukhaari, trans. Afzal Hoosen Elias (Karachi: Mustafah Publishers, 2016), 3:619, no. 1088.

 

[37] Leihan Zhang, Jichang Zhao, and Ke Xu, “Who Creates Trends in Online Social Media: The Crowd or Opinion Leaders?” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 21, no. 1 (2016): 10, accessed January 5, 2023, doi:10.1111/jcc4.12145.

 

[38] At-Tirmidhi, Jami At-Tirmidhi, 5:70-72, nos. 2674-2675; Tirmidhi, Meaning of Jami Tirmidhi, 2:155, nos. 2683-2684.

 

[39] Abdul Baqi, Al-Lu’Lu’wal-Marjan, 2: 466, no. 1881; Al-Bukhari, Sahih Al-Bukhari, 8:264, no. 6477; Muslim, Sahih Muslim, 7:388-389, nos. 7481 & 7482.

 

[40] Al-Syed, Taqwa, 2.

 

[41] Ibid., 6.

 

[42] Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, The Noble Qur’an: Tafseer-e-Usmani, trans. Mohammad Ashfaq Ahmad (New Dehli: Islamic Book Service, 1999), 432.

 

[43] Abu Maryam Majdi Fathi Al-Syed, Fear of Allah: In Light of the Quran, the Sunnah and the Predecessors, trans. Mohammed Amin Kholwadia (London: Al-Firdous Ltd, 1995), 10.

 

[44] Qur’an, 5:8.

 

[45] Abdur-Rahman ibn Abdul-Lateef Al-Mahmood, A Book on Islamic Studies (Riyadh: Maktaba Darussalam, 2010), 40; Al-Jazairee, Calls from the Most Merciful, 211.

 

[46] Abu Hamid Muhammad Al-Ghazali, The Ninety-Nine Beautiful Names of God: Al-Maqsad Al-Asna Fi Sharh Asma’ Allah Al-Husna, trans. David B. Burrell and Nazih Daher (Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1992), 92-96.

 

[47] Omar, Dictionary of the Holy Qur’an, 362.

 

[48] Al-Jazairee, Calls from the Most Merciful, 212; Al-Qurtubi, Tafsir al-Qurtubi, 6:76; As-Sa’di, Tafseer as-Sa’di, 2:372; Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 3:122.   

 

[49] Al-Jazairee, Calls from the Most Merciful, 213.

 

[50] Muslim, Sahih Muslim, 5:153-154, no. 4721.

 

[51] Ibid.

 

[52] Abdul Baqi, Al-Lu’Lu’wal-Marjan, 2:47-48, nos. 1048 & 1049; Al-Bukhari, Sahih Al-Bukhari, 3:438-439, no. 2587; Al-Bukhari and Muslim, in Tafsir Ibn Kathir, Ibn Kathir, 3:122; Muslim, Sahih Muslim, 4:354-355, nos. 4181-4184.

 

[53] Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 3:122.

 

[54] Islam Question & Answer, “Is Treating People equally Unfairly Justice?” last modified January 9, 2013, https://islamqa.info/en/answers/171925/is-treating-people-equally-unfairly-justice

 

[55] Usmani, Tafseer-e-Usmani, 1:443.

 

[56] Ibid.

 

[57] Madani, Tafsir Anwarul Bayan, 2:64.

 

[58] Ibid.

 

[59] Usmani, Tafseer-e-Usmani, 1:443.

 

[60] As-Sa’di, Tafseer as-Sa’di, 2:372; Madani, Tafsir Anwarul Bayan, 2:64; Yusuf, Tafsir Ahsanul-Bayan, 1:568.

 

[61] Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an, 3: 84-87.

 

[62] Ibid.

 

[63] Qur’an, 5:8.

 

[64] Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an, 3: 87-88.

 

[65] Ibid., 3: 88-89.

 

[66] Ibid.

 

[67] Dustin P. Calvillo, Abraham M. Rutchick and Ryan J. B. Garcia, “Individual Differences in Belief in Fake News About Election Fraud After the 2020 U.S. Election,” Behavioral Sciences 11, no. 12 (2021): 175, accessed December 31, 2022, doi:10.3390/bs11120175.

 

[68] Gert-Jan Put, “Is there a Friends-and-Neighbors Effect for Party Leaders?” Electoral Studies 71 (2021): 102338, accessed December 31, 2022, doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2021.102338.

 

[69] Munir Ahmad Mughal, Code for Believers (Delhi: Adam Publishers & Distributors, 1994), 159.

 

[70] Ibn Abbas, Tafsir Ibn Abbas, 134.

 

[71] Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 6:579; As-Suyuti, Jalal Al-Din, The Reasons of Revealing, trans. Abd El Qader A. Al-Azeez H. (Al-Mansoura: Dar Al-Ghad Al-Gadid, 2003), 295-296.

 

[72] Qur’an, 22:37.

 

[73] Muhammad Mohar Ali, A Word for Word Meaning of the Qur’an (Ipswich, Suffolk: Jam’iyat Ihyaa Minhaaj Al-Sunnah, 2003), 2: 1059; As-Suyuti, The Reasons of Revealing, 295-296; Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 6: 579; Nasr, The Study Quran, 838-839; Sayyid Qutb, In the Shade of the Qur’an, trans. Adil Salahi (Leicestershire: The Islamic Foundation, 2006), 12: 134.

 

[74] As-Sa’di, Tafseer as-Sa’di, 6: 278.

 

[75] Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 6: 579.

 

[76] As-Sa’di, Tafseer as-Sa’di, 6: 278.

 

[77] Qutb, In the Shade of the Qur’an, 12: 134.

 

[78] Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an, 6: 263.

 

[79] Ghulam Sarwar, Islam: Beliefs and Teachings, 7th ed. (The Muslim Educational Trust, 2003), 75; Islam Question and Answer, “Are There Any Special Features of the Tenth of Dhul-Hijjah?” last modified October 21, 2012, https://islamqa.info/en/answers/36477/virtues-of-the-day-of-sacrifice; Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an, 6: 272.

 

[80] Ali, A Word for Word Meaning of the Qur’an, 2: 1059.

 

[81] Madani, Tafsir Anwarul Bayan, 3: 390-391.

 

[82] Ibid.

 

[83] Ali, A Word for Word Meaning of the Qur’an, 2: 1059.

 

[84] As-Sa’di, Tafseer as-Sa’di, 6: 279.

 

[85] Saleh As-Saleh, Hajj and Tawheed (Middlesex: Message of Islam, 1998), 15.

 

[86] As-Saleh, Hajj and Tawheed, 25; Afif A. Tabbarah, The Spirit of Islam: Doctrine and Teachings, trans. Hasan T. Shoucair, 4th rev. ed. (Beirut: Dar El Ilm Lil Malayin, 2001), 171.

 

[87] Ibid., 172.

 

[88] Usmani, Tafseer-e-Usmani, 2: 1507.

 

[89] Qur’an, 19:54.

 

[90] Ibid., 21:85.

 

[91] Ibid., 19:54.

 

[92] Ibid., 19:55.

 

[93] Ibid.

 

[94] Ibid., 38:48.

 

[95] Ibid., 6:86.

 

[96] Ibid., 108:2 & 6:162.

 

[97] As-Sa’di, Tafseer as-Sa’di, 10: 458; Madani, Tafsir Anwarul Bayan, 5: 400.

 

[98] Abu Hamid Muhammad Al-Ghazali, Revival of Religion's Sciences: Ihya' Ulum Ad-Din, trans. Mohammad Mahdi Al-Sharif (Beirut: Dar Al-Kotob Al-Ilimiyah, 2011), 1: 517; Muhammad Al-Jibaly, Festivals and Celebrations in Islam, 2nd ed. (Arlington: Al-Kitaab & As-Sunnah Publishing, 2005), 171.

 

[99] Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 10: 609-610; Madani, Tafsir Anwarul Bayan, 5: 400.

 

[100] Al-Jibaly, Festivals and Celebrations in Islam, 172; Madani, Tafsir Anwarul Bayan, 5: 400.

 

[101] Madani, Tafsir Anwarul Bayan, 3: 390-391.

 

[102] Al-Jibaly, Festivals and Celebrations in Islam, 181.

 

[103] Qur’an, 3:102.

 

[104] Al-Jibaly, Festivals and Celebrations in Islam, 184-185.

 

[105] Al-Syed, Taqwa, 7; Nasr, The Study Quran, 158.

 

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[108] John L. Esposito, ed., The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 2:357.

 

[109] Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah, The Sayings of Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah, trans. Ikram Hawramani (Self-published, 2017), 51.

 

[110] Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an, 6:272.

 

[111] Muslim, Sahih Muslim, 6:444-445, no. 6572.

 

[112] Ahmad ibn Taymiyyah, Tafsir Shaykh Al-Islam Ibn Taymiyyah, comp. Iyad ibn Abdul Latif ibn Ibrahim Al-Qaisi (Riyadh: Dar Ibn Al-Jawzi, 2018), 4:430.

 

[113] Qur’an, 51:56.

 

[114] As-Sa’di, Tafseer as-Sa’di, 6:278; Madani, Tafsir Anwarul Bayan, 3:390-391.

 

[115] Al-Syed, Taqwa, 2.

 

[116] Muslim, Sahih Muslim, 6:432-433, nos. 6542 & 6543.

 

[117] Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 6:579.

 

[118] Rene Guenon, The Crisis of the Modern World, trans. Marco Pallis and Richard Nicholson (Lahore: Suhail Academy, 2011), 89.

 

[119] Abdur Rashid Siddiqui, Living in Allah’s Presence: Aspects of Islamic Spirituality (Leicestershire: The Islamic Founation, 2013), 33.

 

[120] Adibah binti Abdul Rahim, “Understanding Islamic Ethics and Its Significance on the Character Building,” International Journal of Social Science and Humanity 3, no. 6 (2013): 508-513, accessed January 22, 2023, doi:10.7763/IJSSH.2013.V3.293.

 

[121] Abdul Baqi, Al-Lu’Lu’wal-Marjan, 1:67-68, no. 50; Al-Bukhari, Sahih Al-Bukhari, 1:67, no. 26; Juan E. Campo, ed., Encyclopedia of Islam (New York: Checkmark Books, 2009), 281-282; Yahiya Emerick, The Meaning of the Holy Qur’an in Today’s English: Extended Study Edition (Self-published, 2000), 435; Abul A’la Maududi, The Meaning of the Qur’an, trans. Muhammad Akbar, ed. A. A. Kamal, 6th ed. (Lahore: Islamic Publications, 2007), 208-209; Muslim, Sahih Muslim, 1:171, no. 248.

 

[122] Al-Bukhari, Sahih Al-Bukhari, 8: 258-259, no. 6467; Muslim, Sahih Muslim, 7:216, no. 7111.

 

[123] Jon Armajani, “Taqwa,” in Encyclopedia of Islam, ed. Juan E. Campo (New York: Checkmark Books, 2009), 662-663.

 

[124] Qur’an, 48:26.

 

[125] Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 9:155-170.

 

[126] Qur’an, 48:1.

 

[127] Nasr, The Study Quran, 1248.

 

[128] Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 9:164.

 

[129] Al-Bukhari, Sahih Al-Bukhari, 3:516, nos. 2711 & 2712; Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 9:164; Muslim, Sahih Muslim, 5:89-90, no. 4632; Yusuf, Tafsir Ahsanul-Bayan, 5:194.

 

[130] Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 9:157 & 163; Muslim, Sahih Muslim, 5:89-90, no. 4632; Yusuf, Tafsir Ahsanul-Bayan, 5: 194.

 

[131] Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 9:164-166.

 

[132] Ali, A Word for Word Meaning of the Qur’an, 3:1673.

 

[133] Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 9:163; Yusuf, Tafsir Ahsanul-Bayan, 5:194.

 

[134] Amin Ahsan Islahi, “Volume 7,” Tadabbur-i-Quran, 7:326-327, accessed January 14, 2023, https://www.tadabbur-i-quran.org/text-of-tadabbur-i-quran/volume-7/; Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an, 8:98; Usmani, Tafseer-e-Usmani, 3:2220; Yusuf, Tafsir Ahsanul-Bayan, 5:195.

 

[135] Ali, A Word for Word Meaning of the Qur’an, 3:1672.

 

[136] Saheeh International, The Qur’an (Jeddah: Abul-Qasim Publishing House, 1997), 728.

 

[137] Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an, 8:97.

 

[138] Madani, Tafsir Anwarul Bayan, 4:476.

 

[139] Yusuf, Tafsir Ahsanul-Bayan, 5:192.

 

[140] Islahi, Tadabbur-i-Quran, 7:324.

 

[141] Ibn Abbas, Tafsir Ibn Abbas, 689; Nasr, The Study Quran, 1254.

 

[142] Madani, Tafsir Anwarul Bayan, 4:476.

 

[143] Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 9:157.

 

[144] Ali, A Word for Word Meaning of the Qur’an, 3: 1672-1673.

 

[145] Usmani, Tafseer-e-Usmani, 3:2220; Yusuf, Tafsir Ahsanul-Bayan, 5:195.

 

[146] Al-Tustari, Tafsir al-Tustari, 198; As-Sa’di, Tafseer as-Sa’di, 9:229; Ibn Abbas, Tafsir Ibn Abbas, 689; Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 9:157.

 

[147] Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 9:157.

 

[148] Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an, 8:98.

 

[149] Al-Tustari, Tafsir al-Tustari, 198; Madani, Tafsir Anwarul Bayan, 4:477; Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an, 8:98; Yusuf, Tafsir Ahsanul-Bayan, 5:195.

 

[150] Al-Tustari, Tafsir al-Tustari, 198; Ibn Abbas, Tafsir Ibn Abbas, 689.

 

[151] Muhammad ibn Yazeed ibn Majah, English Translation of Sunan Ibn Majah, trans. Nasiruddin Al-Khattab, ed. Huda Khattab (Riyadh: Maktaba Darussalam, 2007), 5:347, no. 4219.

 

[152] At-Tirmidhi, Jami At-Tirmidhi, 4:93-94, no. 2004; Tirmidhi, Meaning of Jami Tirmidhi, 1:184, no. 2011.

 

[153] At-Tirmidhi, Jami At-Tirmidhi, 4:92-93, nos. 2002 & 2003; Tirmidhi, Meaning of Jami Tirmidhi, 1:183-184, nos. 2009 & 2010.

 

[154] Ali, A Word for Word Meaning of the Qur’an, 3:1673.

 

[155] Al-Bukhari, Sahih Al-Bukhari, 3:516, nos. 2711 & 2712; Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 9:157 & 163-164; Muslim, Sahih Muslim, 5: 89-90, no. 4632; Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an, 8: 98; Usmani, Tafseer-e-Usmani, 3:2220; Yusuf, Tafsir Ahsanul-Bayan, 5:194-195.

 

[156] Usmani, Tafseer-e-Usmani, 3:2220; Yusuf, Tafsir Ahsanul-Bayan, 5:195.

 

[157] Wiktor Soral, James H. Liu and Michal Bilewicz, “Media of Contempt: Social Media Consumption Predicts Normative Acceptance of Anti-Muslim Hate Speech and Islamoprejudice,” International Journal of Conflict and Violence 14, no. 1 (2020): 1-13, accessed January 20, 2023, doi:10.4119/ijcv-3774.

 

[158] Bertie Vidgen and Taha Yasseri, “Detecting Weak and Strong Islamophobic Hate Speech on Social Media,” Journal of Information Technology & Politics 17, no. 1 (2020): 66-78, accessed January 19, 2023, doi:10.1080/19331681.2019.1702607.

 

[159] Ahmed Al-Rawi, “Hashtagged Trolling and Emojified Hate against Muslims on Social Media,” Religions 13, no. 6 (2022): 521, accessed January 21, 2023, doi:10.3390/rel13060521.

 

[160] Abdul Baqi, Al-Lu’Lu’wal-Marjan, 1: 63, no. 37; Al-Bukhari, Sahih Al-Bukhari, 1: 71, no. 34; Muslim, Sahih Muslim, 1:155-156, no. 210.

 

[161] At-Tirmidhi, Jami At-Tirmidhi, 4:92, no. 2002; Tirmidhi, Meaning of Jami Tirmidhi, 1:183, no. 2009.

 

[162] Muhammad ibn Ismail Al-Bukhari, Al-Adab Al-Mufrad: Prophetic Morals and Etiquettes, comp. Abu Naasir Ibrahim Abdur-Rauf (Selangor: Dakwah Corner Publications, 2014), 189, no. 273; Malik ibn Anas Al-Asbahi, Al-Muwatta of Imam Malik ibn Anas: The First Formulation of Islamic Law, trans. Aisha Abdurrahman Bewley (Granada: Madinah Press, 1989), 382, no. 8.

 

[163] Lydia Polgreen, “Nigeria Counts 100 deaths Over Danish Caricatures,” The New York Times, February 24, 2006, accessed 20 January, 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/24/international/africa/24nigeria.html

 

[164] Irena Wolska-Zogata, “The Story of Charlie Hedbo: An Analysis of European and American Newspapers,” Mediterranean Journal of Social Science 6, no. 2 (2015): 353-362, accessed January 20, 2023, https://www.mcser.org/journal/index.php/mjss/article/view/6201/5946

 

[165] Abu Amina Elias, “Hadith on Kab’ah: Lives of Believers More Sacred than Kab’ah,” Daily Hadith Online, accessed January 20, 2023, https://www.abuaminaelias.com/dailyhadithonline/2013/05/19/believers-more-sacred-kabah/; Ibn Majah, Sunan Ibn Majah, 5: 167, no. 3932.

 

[166] Al-Bukhari, Sahih Al-Bukhari, 8: 41, no. 6024.

 

[167] Ibid., 8: 43, no. 6029.

 

[168] Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an, 8: 98.

 

[169] Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an, 2: 398; Yusuf, Tafsir Ahsanul-Bayan, 1:445.

 

[170] Qur’an, 4:28.

 

[171] Qur’an, 103:2.

 

[172] Qur’an, 74:56.

 

[173] Ali, A Word for Word Meaning of the Qur’an, 3:1912; Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an, 8:648.

 

[174] Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 10:260.

 

[175] Ali, A Word for Word Meaning of the Qur’an, 3:1912; Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an, 8:648.

 

[176] Al-Mahalli and As-Suyuti, Tafsir Al-Jalalayn, 1267; Amin Ahsan Islahi, “Volume 9,” Tadabbur-i-Quran, 9: 51, accessed January 24, 2023, https://www.tadabbur-i-quran.org/text-of-tadabbur-i-quran/volume-9/; Qutb, In the Shade of the Qur’an, 17:377.

 

[177] Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an, 8:648.

 

[178] Abdul Baqi, Al-Lu’Lu’wal-Marjan, 2:393, no. 1760; Al-Bukhari, Sahih Al-Bukhari, 4:424, no. 3470; Muslim, Sahih Muslim, 7:141-143, no. 7008.

 

[179] Abdul Jalil, Nikaatud Duraari, 4:418, no. 1416.

 

[180] Nasr, The Study Quran, 1444.

 

[181] Qutb, In the Shade of the Qur’an, 17:360 & 376.

 

[182] Madani, Tafsir Anwarul Bayan, 5:268.

 

[183] As-Sa’di, Tafseer as-Sa’di, 10:269.

 

[184] Al-Tustari, Tafsir al-Tustari, 255.

 

[185] Muhammad Asad, The Message of the Qur’an (Gibraltar: Dar Al-Andalus, 1980), 911.

 

[186] Ibn Abbas, Tafsir Ibn Abbas, 815.

 

[187] Abdullah Yusuf Ali, The Holy Qur’an: Text, Translation and Commentary, New Rev. ed. (Maryland: Amana Corporation, 1989), 1563.

 

[188] Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an, 8:648.

 

[189] Ali, The Holy Qur’an, 17.

 

[190] Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips, Salvation Through Repentance: An Islamic View (Riyadh: International Islamic Publishing House, 1996), 2.

 

[191] Ibid., 22.

 

[192] Ibn Majah, Sunan Ibn Majah, 5:363, no. 4248.

 

[193] At-Tirmidhi, Jami At-Tirmidhi, 4:497, no. 2499; Ibn Majah and At-Tirmidhi, in The Best in Islam, Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips (Sharjah: Dar Al Fatah, 1996), 68, no. 152; Ibn Majah, Sunan Ibn Majah, 5:364, no. 4250; Tirmidhi, Meaning of Jami Tirmidhi, 2:81, no. 2507.

 

[194] Ibn Majah, Sunan Ibn Majah, 5:364, no. 4250.

 

[195] Al-Bukhari, Sahih Al-Bukhari, 9:287, no. 7376; Muslim, Sahih Muslim, 6:171, no. 6030.

 

[196] At-Tirmidhi, Jami At-Tirmidhi, 4:497, no. 2499; Usmani, Tafseer-e-Usmani, 3:2490.

 

[197] Abdul Baqi, Al-Lu’Lu’wal-Marjan, 2:388, no. 1748; Al-Bukhari, Sahih Al-Bukhari, 8:181, no. 6309; Muslim, Sahih Muslim, 7:118, no. 6955.

 

[198] Ibn Majah, Sunan Ibn Majah, 5:395, no. 4299.

 

[199] Ibn Majah, Sunan Ibn Majah, 5:394-395, no. 4299; Ibn Majah, In Ahadith Qudsiyah: Sayings of the Prophet having Allah’s Statements, trans. Rafiq Abdur Rahman (Karachi: Darul Isha'at, 2012), 171-172, no. 294; Qutb, In the Shade of the Qur’an, 17:377.

 

[200] Madani, Tafsir Anwarul Bayan, 5: 268; Usmani, Tafseer-e-Usmani, 3: 2490.

 

[201] Shafi, Ma'ariful Qur'an, 8: 648.

 

[202] Abdul Baqi, Al-Lu’Lu’wal-Marjan, 2: 390, no. 1754; Al-Bukhari, Sahih Al-Bukhari, 9: 360, no. 7507; Muslim, Sahih Muslim, 7: 132-133, no. 6986.

 

[203] Abdul Jalil, Nikaatud Duraari, 6: 568, no. 2181.

 

[204] Al-Ghazali, The Ninety-Nine Beautiful Names of God, 73.

 

[205] Ibid., 100.

 

[206] Ibid., 137.

 

[207] Ibid., 138.

 

[208] Ibid., 139.

 

[209] Al-Ghazali, The Ninety-Nine Beautiful Names of God, 73-74; Abu Ahmed Farid, The Most Excellent Names of Allah (Selangor: Dakwah Corner Publications, 2016), 47.

 

[210] Al-Ghazali, The Ninety-Nine Beautiful Names of God, 100-101; Farid, The Most Excellent Names of Allah, 46.

 

[211] Al-Ghazali, The Ninety-Nine Beautiful Names of God, 137-138; Farid, The Most Excellent Names of Allah, 48.

 

[212] Al-Ghazali, The Ninety-Nine Beautiful Names of God, 138-139; Farid, The Most Excellent Names of Allah, 45.

 

[213] Al-Ghazali, The Ninety-Nine Beautiful Names of God, 139; Farid, The Most Excellent Names of Allah, 74.